diff --git a/src/export/pdf.rs b/src/export/pdf.rs
index 843e6f374..b5768755b 100644
--- a/src/export/pdf.rs
+++ b/src/export/pdf.rs
@@ -22,6 +22,7 @@ use crate::geom::{
     Stroke, Transform,
 };
 use crate::image::{Image, ImageId, ImageStore, RasterImage};
+use crate::library::prelude::EcoString;
 use crate::library::text::Lang;
 use crate::Context;
 
@@ -74,7 +75,8 @@ impl<'a> PdfExporter<'a> {
         self.build_pages(frames);
         self.write_fonts();
         self.write_images();
-        self.write_structure()
+        self.write_structure();
+        self.writer.finish()
     }
 
     fn build_pages(&mut self, frames: &[Arc<Frame>]) {
@@ -299,7 +301,7 @@ impl<'a> PdfExporter<'a> {
         }
     }
 
-    fn write_structure(mut self) -> Vec<u8> {
+    fn write_structure(&mut self) {
         // The root page tree.
         let page_tree_ref = self.alloc.bump();
 
@@ -315,70 +317,94 @@ impl<'a> PdfExporter<'a> {
         let mut languages = HashMap::new();
         let mut heading_tree: Vec<HeadingNode> = vec![];
 
-        for (page, page_id) in self.pages.into_iter().zip(page_refs.iter()) {
-            let content_id = self.alloc.bump();
-
-            let mut page_writer = self.writer.page(*page_id);
-            page_writer.parent(page_tree_ref);
-
-            let w = page.size.x.to_f32();
-            let h = page.size.y.to_f32();
-            page_writer.media_box(Rect::new(0.0, 0.0, w, h));
-            page_writer.contents(content_id);
-
-            let mut annotations = page_writer.annotations();
-            for (dest, rect) in page.links {
-                let mut link = annotations.push();
-                link.subtype(AnnotationType::Link).rect(rect);
-                match dest {
-                    Destination::Url(uri) => {
-                        link.action()
-                            .action_type(ActionType::Uri)
-                            .uri(Str(uri.as_str().as_bytes()));
-                    }
-                    Destination::Internal(loc) => {
-                        let index = loc.page - 1;
-                        let height = page_heights[index];
-                        link.action()
-                            .action_type(ActionType::GoTo)
-                            .destination_direct()
-                            .page(page_refs[index])
-                            .xyz(loc.pos.x.to_f32(), height - loc.pos.y.to_f32(), None);
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-
-            annotations.finish();
-            page_writer.finish();
-
-            for (lang, count) in page.languages {
-                languages
-                    .entry(lang)
-                    .and_modify(|x| *x += count)
-                    .or_insert_with(|| count);
-            }
-
-            for heading in page.headings.into_iter() {
-                if let Some(last) = heading_tree.pop() {
-                    let new = last.clone().insert(heading.clone(), *page_id, 1);
-                    if let Some(new) = new {
-                        heading_tree.push(new);
-                    } else {
-                        heading_tree.push(last);
-                        heading_tree.push(HeadingNode::Leaf(heading, *page_id))
-                    }
-                } else {
-                    heading_tree.push(HeadingNode::Leaf(heading, *page_id))
-                }
-            }
-
-            self.writer
-                .stream(content_id, &deflate(&page.content.finish()))
-                .filter(Filter::FlateDecode);
+        for (page, page_id) in
+            std::mem::take(&mut self.pages).into_iter().zip(page_refs.iter())
+        {
+            self.write_page(
+                page,
+                *page_id,
+                &page_refs,
+                page_tree_ref,
+                &mut languages,
+                &mut heading_tree,
+                &mut page_heights,
+            );
         }
 
+        self.write_page_tree(&page_refs, page_tree_ref);
+        self.write_catalog(page_tree_ref, &languages, &heading_tree);
+    }
+
+    fn write_page(
+        &mut self,
+        page: Page,
+        page_id: Ref,
+        page_refs: &[Ref],
+        page_tree_ref: Ref,
+        languages: &mut HashMap<Lang, usize>,
+        heading_tree: &mut Vec<HeadingNode>,
+        page_heights: &mut Vec<f32>,
+    ) {
+        let content_id = self.alloc.bump();
+
+        let mut page_writer = self.writer.page(page_id);
+        page_writer.parent(page_tree_ref);
+
+        let w = page.size.x.to_f32();
+        let h = page.size.y.to_f32();
+        page_writer.media_box(Rect::new(0.0, 0.0, w, h));
+        page_writer.contents(content_id);
+
+        let mut annotations = page_writer.annotations();
+        for (dest, rect) in page.links {
+            let mut link = annotations.push();
+            link.subtype(AnnotationType::Link).rect(rect);
+            match dest {
+                Destination::Url(uri) => {
+                    link.action()
+                        .action_type(ActionType::Uri)
+                        .uri(Str(uri.as_str().as_bytes()));
+                }
+                Destination::Internal(loc) => {
+                    let index = loc.page - 1;
+                    let height = page_heights[index];
+                    link.action()
+                        .action_type(ActionType::GoTo)
+                        .destination_direct()
+                        .page(page_refs[index])
+                        .xyz(loc.pos.x.to_f32(), height - loc.pos.y.to_f32(), None);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        annotations.finish();
+        page_writer.finish();
+
+        for (lang, count) in page.languages {
+            languages
+                .entry(lang)
+                .and_modify(|x| *x += count)
+                .or_insert_with(|| count);
+        }
+
+        for heading in page.headings.into_iter() {
+            if let Some(last) = heading_tree.last_mut() {
+                if !last.insert(heading.clone(), page_id, 1) {
+                    heading_tree.push(HeadingNode::leaf(heading, page_id))
+                }
+            } else {
+                heading_tree.push(HeadingNode::leaf(heading, page_id))
+            }
+        }
+
+        self.writer
+            .stream(content_id, &deflate(&page.content.finish()))
+            .filter(Filter::FlateDecode);
+    }
+
+    fn write_page_tree(&mut self, page_refs: &[Ref], page_tree_ref: Ref) {
         let mut pages = self.writer.pages(page_tree_ref);
-        pages.count(page_refs.len() as i32).kids(page_refs);
+        pages.count(page_refs.len() as i32).kids(page_refs.iter().copied());
 
         let mut resources = pages.resources();
         let mut spaces = resources.color_spaces();
@@ -403,37 +429,32 @@ impl<'a> PdfExporter<'a> {
         images.finish();
         resources.finish();
         pages.finish();
+    }
 
-        // Build the heading tree.
+    fn write_catalog(
+        &mut self,
+        page_tree_ref: Ref,
+        languages: &HashMap<Lang, usize>,
+        heading_tree: &Vec<HeadingNode>,
+    ) {
+        // Build the outline tree.
         let outline_root_id = self.alloc.bump();
 
-        let start_ref = self.alloc.bump();
-        let mut current_ref = start_ref;
-        let mut prev_ref = None;
+        let outline_start_ref = self.alloc;
 
         for (i, node) in heading_tree.iter().enumerate() {
-            let next = write_outline_item(
-                &mut self.writer,
+            self.write_outline_item(
                 node,
-                current_ref,
-                prev_ref,
-                i == heading_tree.len() - 1,
+                i == 0,
+                i + 1 == heading_tree.len(),
                 outline_root_id,
             );
-            prev_ref = Some(current_ref);
-            current_ref = next;
         }
 
-
-        self.alloc = Ref::new(
-            start_ref.get()
-                + heading_tree.iter().map(HeadingNode::len).sum::<usize>() as i32,
-        );
-
-        if let Some(prev_ref) = prev_ref {
+        if !heading_tree.is_empty() {
             let mut outline_root = self.writer.outline(outline_root_id);
-            outline_root.first(start_ref);
-            outline_root.last(prev_ref);
+            outline_root.first(outline_start_ref);
+            outline_root.last(Ref::new(self.alloc.get() - 1));
             outline_root.count(heading_tree.len() as i32);
         }
 
@@ -442,7 +463,7 @@ impl<'a> PdfExporter<'a> {
             .max_by(|(_, v1), (_, v2)| v1.cmp(v2))
             .map(|(k, _)| k);
 
-        let dir = if lang.map(Lang::dir) == Some(Dir::RTL) {
+        let dir = if lang.copied().map(Lang::dir) == Some(Dir::RTL) {
             Direction::R2L
         } else {
             Direction::L2R
@@ -454,7 +475,6 @@ impl<'a> PdfExporter<'a> {
         catalog.pages(page_tree_ref);
         catalog.viewer_preferences().direction(dir);
 
-
         if !heading_tree.is_empty() {
             catalog.outlines(outline_root_id);
         }
@@ -464,7 +484,51 @@ impl<'a> PdfExporter<'a> {
         }
 
         catalog.finish();
-        self.writer.finish()
+    }
+
+    fn write_outline_item(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &HeadingNode,
+        is_first: bool,
+        is_last: bool,
+        parent_ref: Ref,
+    ) {
+        let id = self.alloc.bump();
+        let next = Ref::new(id.get() + node.len() as i32);
+
+        let mut outline = self.writer.outline_item(id);
+        outline.parent(parent_ref);
+
+        if !is_last {
+            outline.next(next);
+        }
+
+        if !is_first {
+            outline.prev(Ref::new(id.get() - 1));
+        }
+
+        if !node.children.is_empty() {
+            let current_child = Ref::new(id.get() + 1);
+            outline.first(current_child);
+            outline.last(Ref::new(next.get() - 1));
+
+            outline.count(-1 * node.children.len() as i32);
+        }
+
+        outline.title(TextStr(&node.heading.content));
+        outline.dest_direct().page(node.page).xyz(
+            node.heading.position.x.to_f32(),
+            (node.heading.position.y + Length::pt(3.0)).to_f32(),
+            None,
+        );
+
+        outline.finish();
+
+        if !node.children.is_empty() {
+            for (i, child) in node.children.iter().enumerate() {
+                self.write_outline_item(child, i == 0, i + 1 == node.children.len(), id);
+            }
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -507,58 +571,43 @@ struct State {
 /// A heading that can later be linked in the outline panel.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 struct Heading {
-    content: String,
+    content: EcoString,
     level: usize,
     position: Point,
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
-enum HeadingNode {
-    Leaf(Heading, Ref),
-    Branch(Heading, Ref, Vec<HeadingNode>),
+struct HeadingNode {
+    heading: Heading,
+    page: Ref,
+    children: Vec<HeadingNode>,
 }
 
 impl HeadingNode {
-    fn heading(&self) -> &Heading {
-        match self {
-            HeadingNode::Leaf(h, _) => h,
-            HeadingNode::Branch(h, _, _) => h,
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn reference(&self) -> Ref {
-        match self {
-            HeadingNode::Leaf(_, r) => *r,
-            HeadingNode::Branch(_, r, _) => *r,
-        }
+    fn leaf(heading: Heading, page: Ref) -> Self {
+        HeadingNode { heading, page, children: Vec::new() }
     }
 
     fn len(&self) -> usize {
-        match self {
-            HeadingNode::Leaf(_, _) => 1,
-            HeadingNode::Branch(_, _, children) => {
-                1 + children.iter().map(|c| c.len()).sum::<usize>()
-            }
-        }
+        1 + self.children.iter().map(|c| c.len()).sum::<usize>()
     }
 
-    fn insert(self, other: Heading, page: Ref, level: usize) -> Option<Self> {
+    fn insert(&mut self, other: Heading, page: Ref, level: usize) -> bool {
         if level >= other.level {
-            return None;
+            return false;
         }
 
-        let mut node = match self {
-            HeadingNode::Leaf(h, r) => (h, r, vec![]),
-            HeadingNode::Branch(h, r, v) if level + 1 == other.level => (h, r, v),
-            HeadingNode::Branch(h, r, mut v) => {
-                let new = v.pop().unwrap().insert(other, page, level + 1).unwrap();
-                v.push(new);
-                return Some(HeadingNode::Branch(h, r, v));
-            }
-        };
+        if !self.children.is_empty() && level + 1 > other.level {
+            return self.children.last_mut().unwrap().insert(other, page, level + 1);
+        }
 
-        node.2.push(HeadingNode::Leaf(other, page));
-        Some(HeadingNode::Branch(node.0, node.1, node.2))
+        self.children.push(HeadingNode {
+            heading: other,
+            page,
+            children: Vec::new(),
+        });
+
+        true
     }
 }
 
@@ -603,11 +652,8 @@ impl<'a> PageExporter<'a> {
     fn write_frame(&mut self, frame: &Frame) {
         if let Some(Role::Heading(level)) = frame.role() {
             self.headings.push(Heading {
-                position: Point::new(
-                    self.state.transform.tx,
-                    self.state.transform.ty + Length::pt(3.0),
-                ),
-                content: frame.inner_text().to_string(),
+                position: Point::new(self.state.transform.tx, self.state.transform.ty),
+                content: frame.inner_text(),
                 level,
             })
         }
@@ -942,67 +988,6 @@ fn encode_image(img: &RasterImage) -> ImageResult<(Vec<u8>, Filter, bool)> {
     })
 }
 
-fn write_outline_item(
-    writer: &mut PdfWriter,
-    node: &HeadingNode,
-    current_ref: Ref,
-    prev_ref: Option<Ref>,
-    is_last: bool,
-    parent_ref: Ref,
-) -> Ref {
-    let mut outline = writer.outline_item(current_ref);
-    let next = Ref::new(current_ref.get() + node.len() as i32);
-    outline.parent(parent_ref);
-
-    if !is_last {
-        outline.next(next);
-    }
-
-    if let Some(prev_ref) = prev_ref {
-        outline.prev(prev_ref);
-    }
-
-    if let HeadingNode::Branch(_, _, children) = node {
-        let current_child = Ref::new(current_ref.get() + 1);
-        if children.len() > 0 {
-            outline.first(current_child);
-            outline.last(Ref::new(next.get() - 1));
-        }
-
-        outline.count(-1 * children.len() as i32);
-    }
-
-    let heading = node.heading();
-    outline.title(TextStr(&heading.content));
-    outline.dest_direct().page(node.reference()).xyz(
-        heading.position.x.to_f32(),
-        heading.position.y.to_f32(),
-        None,
-    );
-
-    outline.finish();
-
-    if let HeadingNode::Branch(_, _, children) = node {
-        let mut current_child = Ref::new(current_ref.get() + 1);
-        let mut prev_ref = None;
-
-        for (i, child) in children.iter().enumerate() {
-            write_outline_item(
-                writer,
-                child,
-                current_child,
-                prev_ref,
-                i == children.len() - 1,
-                current_ref,
-            );
-            prev_ref = Some(current_child);
-            current_child = Ref::new(current_child.get() + 1);
-        }
-    }
-
-    next
-}
-
 /// Encode an image's alpha channel if present.
 fn encode_alpha(img: &RasterImage) -> (Vec<u8>, Filter) {
     let pixels: Vec<_> = img.buf.pixels().map(|(_, _, Rgba([_, _, _, a]))| a).collect();