diff --git a/crates/typst-pdf/src/tags/context.rs b/crates/typst-pdf/src/tags/context.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..8011f1cb6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/crates/typst-pdf/src/tags/context.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,539 @@
+use std::cell::OnceCell;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::slice::SliceIndex;
+
+use krilla::geom as kg;
+use krilla::tagging::{BBox, Node, TagKind, TagTree};
+use typst_library::foundations::{LinkMarker, Packed};
+use typst_library::introspection::Location;
+use typst_library::layout::{Abs, Point, Rect};
+use typst_library::model::{OutlineEntry, TableCell};
+use typst_library::pdf::ArtifactKind;
+use typst_library::text::Lang;
+use typst_syntax::Span;
+
+use crate::convert::FrameContext;
+use crate::tags::list::ListCtx;
+use crate::tags::outline::OutlineCtx;
+use crate::tags::table::TableCtx;
+use crate::tags::{Placeholder, TagGroup, TagNode};
+use crate::util::AbsExt;
+
+pub struct Tags {
+    /// The language of the first text item that has been encountered.
+    pub doc_lang: Option<Lang>,
+    /// The intermediary stack of nested tag groups.
+    pub stack: TagStack,
+    /// A list of placeholders corresponding to a [`TagNode::Placeholder`].
+    pub placeholders: Placeholders,
+    /// Footnotes are inserted directly after the footenote reference in the
+    /// reading order. Because of some layouting bugs, the entry might appear
+    /// before the reference in the text, so we only resolve them once tags
+    /// for the whole document are generated.
+    pub footnotes: HashMap<Location, FootnoteCtx>,
+    pub in_artifact: Option<(Location, ArtifactKind)>,
+    /// Used to group multiple link annotations using quad points.
+    link_id: LinkId,
+    /// Used to generate IDs referenced in table `Headers` attributes.
+    /// The IDs must be document wide unique.
+    table_id: TableId,
+
+    /// The output.
+    pub tree: Vec<TagNode>,
+}
+
+impl Tags {
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            doc_lang: None,
+            stack: TagStack::new(),
+            placeholders: Placeholders(Vec::new()),
+            footnotes: HashMap::new(),
+            in_artifact: None,
+
+            link_id: LinkId(0),
+            table_id: TableId(0),
+
+            tree: Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn push(&mut self, node: TagNode) {
+        if let Some(entry) = self.stack.last_mut() {
+            entry.nodes.push(node);
+        } else {
+            self.tree.push(node);
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn extend(&mut self, nodes: impl IntoIterator<Item = TagNode>) {
+        if let Some(entry) = self.stack.last_mut() {
+            entry.nodes.extend(nodes);
+        } else {
+            self.tree.extend(nodes);
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn build_tree(&mut self) -> TagTree {
+        let children = std::mem::take(&mut self.tree)
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|node| self.resolve_node(node))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        TagTree::from(children)
+    }
+
+    /// Try to set the language of a parent tag, or the entire document.
+    /// If the language couldn't be set and is different from the existing one,
+    /// this will return `Some`, and the language should be specified on the
+    /// marked content directly.
+    pub fn try_set_lang(&mut self, lang: Lang) -> Option<Lang> {
+        // Discard languages within artifacts.
+        if self.in_artifact.is_some() {
+            return None;
+        }
+        if self.doc_lang.is_none_or(|l| l == lang) {
+            self.doc_lang = Some(lang);
+            return None;
+        }
+        if let Some(last) = self.stack.last_mut()
+            && last.lang.is_none_or(|l| l == lang)
+        {
+            last.lang = Some(lang);
+            return None;
+        }
+        Some(lang)
+    }
+
+    /// Resolves [`Placeholder`] nodes.
+    fn resolve_node(&mut self, node: TagNode) -> Node {
+        match node {
+            TagNode::Group(TagGroup { tag, nodes }) => {
+                let children = nodes
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(|node| self.resolve_node(node))
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+                Node::Group(krilla::tagging::TagGroup::with_children(tag, children))
+            }
+            TagNode::Leaf(identifier) => Node::Leaf(identifier),
+            TagNode::Placeholder(placeholder) => self.placeholders.take(placeholder),
+            TagNode::FootnoteEntry(loc) => {
+                let node = (self.footnotes.remove(&loc))
+                    .and_then(|ctx| ctx.entry)
+                    .expect("footnote");
+                self.resolve_node(node)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn context_supports(&self, _tag: &StackEntryKind) -> bool {
+        // TODO: generate using: https://pdfa.org/resource/iso-ts-32005-hierarchical-inclusion-rules/
+        true
+    }
+
+    pub fn next_link_id(&mut self) -> LinkId {
+        self.link_id.0 += 1;
+        self.link_id
+    }
+
+    pub fn next_table_id(&mut self) -> TableId {
+        self.table_id.0 += 1;
+        self.table_id
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct TagStack {
+    items: Vec<StackEntry>,
+    /// The index of the topmost stack entry that has a bbox.
+    bbox_idx: Option<usize>,
+}
+
+impl<I: SliceIndex<[StackEntry]>> std::ops::Index<I> for TagStack {
+    type Output = I::Output;
+
+    #[inline]
+    fn index(&self, index: I) -> &Self::Output {
+        std::ops::Index::index(&self.items, index)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<I: SliceIndex<[StackEntry]>> std::ops::IndexMut<I> for TagStack {
+    #[inline]
+    fn index_mut(&mut self, index: I) -> &mut Self::Output {
+        std::ops::IndexMut::index_mut(&mut self.items, index)
+    }
+}
+
+impl TagStack {
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self { items: Vec::new(), bbox_idx: None }
+    }
+
+    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        self.items.len()
+    }
+
+    pub fn last(&self) -> Option<&StackEntry> {
+        self.items.last()
+    }
+
+    pub fn last_mut(&mut self) -> Option<&mut StackEntry> {
+        self.items.last_mut()
+    }
+
+    pub fn iter(&self) -> std::slice::Iter<StackEntry> {
+        self.items.iter()
+    }
+
+    pub fn push(&mut self, entry: StackEntry) {
+        if entry.kind.bbox().is_some() {
+            self.bbox_idx = Some(self.len());
+        }
+        self.items.push(entry);
+    }
+
+    pub fn extend(&mut self, iter: impl IntoIterator<Item = StackEntry>) {
+        let start = self.len();
+        self.items.extend(iter);
+        let last_bbox_offset = self.items[start..]
+            .iter()
+            .rposition(|entry| entry.kind.bbox().is_some());
+        if let Some(offset) = last_bbox_offset {
+            self.bbox_idx = Some(start + offset);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Remove the last stack entry if the predicate returns true.
+    /// This takes care of updating the parent bboxes.
+    pub fn pop_if(
+        &mut self,
+        mut predicate: impl FnMut(&mut StackEntry) -> bool,
+    ) -> Option<StackEntry> {
+        let last = self.items.last_mut()?;
+        if predicate(last) { self.pop() } else { None }
+    }
+
+    /// Remove the last stack entry.
+    /// This takes care of updating the parent bboxes.
+    pub fn pop(&mut self) -> Option<StackEntry> {
+        let removed = self.items.pop()?;
+
+        let Some(inner_bbox) = removed.kind.bbox() else { return Some(removed) };
+
+        self.bbox_idx = self.items.iter_mut().enumerate().rev().find_map(|(i, entry)| {
+            let outer_bbox = entry.kind.bbox_mut()?;
+            if let Some((page_idx, rect)) = inner_bbox.rect {
+                outer_bbox.expand_page(page_idx, rect);
+            }
+            Some(i)
+        });
+
+        Some(removed)
+    }
+
+    pub fn parent(&mut self) -> Option<&mut StackEntryKind> {
+        self.items.last_mut().map(|e| &mut e.kind)
+    }
+
+    pub fn parent_table(&mut self) -> Option<&mut TableCtx> {
+        self.parent()?.as_table_mut()
+    }
+
+    pub fn parent_list(&mut self) -> Option<&mut ListCtx> {
+        self.parent()?.as_list_mut()
+    }
+
+    pub fn parent_figure(&mut self) -> Option<&mut FigureCtx> {
+        self.parent()?.as_figure_mut()
+    }
+
+    pub fn parent_outline(&mut self) -> Option<(&mut OutlineCtx, &mut Vec<TagNode>)> {
+        self.items.last_mut().and_then(|e| {
+            let ctx = e.kind.as_outline_mut()?;
+            Some((ctx, &mut e.nodes))
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub fn find_parent_link(
+        &mut self,
+    ) -> Option<(LinkId, &Packed<LinkMarker>, &mut Vec<TagNode>)> {
+        self.items.iter_mut().rev().find_map(|e| {
+            let (link_id, link) = e.kind.as_link()?;
+            Some((link_id, link, &mut e.nodes))
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Finds the first parent that has a bounding box.
+    pub fn find_parent_bbox(&mut self) -> Option<&mut BBoxCtx> {
+        self.items[self.bbox_idx?].kind.bbox_mut()
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct Placeholders(Vec<OnceCell<Node>>);
+
+impl Placeholders {
+    pub fn reserve(&mut self) -> Placeholder {
+        let idx = self.0.len();
+        self.0.push(OnceCell::new());
+        Placeholder(idx)
+    }
+
+    pub fn init(&mut self, placeholder: Placeholder, node: Node) {
+        self.0[placeholder.0]
+            .set(node)
+            .map_err(|_| ())
+            .expect("placeholder to be uninitialized");
+    }
+
+    pub fn take(&mut self, placeholder: Placeholder) -> Node {
+        self.0[placeholder.0].take().expect("initialized placeholder node")
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
+pub struct TableId(u32);
+
+impl TableId {
+    pub fn get(self) -> u32 {
+        self.0
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
+pub struct LinkId(u32);
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct StackEntry {
+    pub loc: Location,
+    pub span: Span,
+    pub lang: Option<Lang>,
+    pub kind: StackEntryKind,
+    pub nodes: Vec<TagNode>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub enum StackEntryKind {
+    Standard(TagKind),
+    Outline(OutlineCtx),
+    OutlineEntry(Packed<OutlineEntry>),
+    Table(TableCtx),
+    TableCell(Packed<TableCell>),
+    List(ListCtx),
+    ListItemLabel,
+    ListItemBody,
+    BibEntry,
+    Figure(FigureCtx),
+    Formula(FigureCtx),
+    Link(LinkId, Packed<LinkMarker>),
+    /// The footnote reference in the text, contains the declaration location.
+    FootnoteRef(Location),
+    /// The footnote entry at the end of the page. Contains the [`Location`] of
+    /// the [`FootnoteElem`](typst_library::model::FootnoteElem).
+    FootnoteEntry(Location),
+    Code(Option<String>),
+}
+
+impl StackEntryKind {
+    pub fn as_outline_mut(&mut self) -> Option<&mut OutlineCtx> {
+        if let Self::Outline(v) = self { Some(v) } else { None }
+    }
+
+    pub fn as_table_mut(&mut self) -> Option<&mut TableCtx> {
+        if let Self::Table(v) = self { Some(v) } else { None }
+    }
+
+    pub fn as_list_mut(&mut self) -> Option<&mut ListCtx> {
+        if let Self::List(v) = self { Some(v) } else { None }
+    }
+
+    pub fn as_figure_mut(&mut self) -> Option<&mut FigureCtx> {
+        if let Self::Figure(v) = self { Some(v) } else { None }
+    }
+
+    pub fn as_link(&self) -> Option<(LinkId, &Packed<LinkMarker>)> {
+        if let Self::Link(id, link) = self { Some((*id, link)) } else { None }
+    }
+
+    pub fn bbox(&self) -> Option<&BBoxCtx> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Table(ctx) => Some(&ctx.bbox),
+            Self::Figure(ctx) => Some(&ctx.bbox),
+            Self::Formula(ctx) => Some(&ctx.bbox),
+            _ => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn bbox_mut(&mut self) -> Option<&mut BBoxCtx> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Table(ctx) => Some(&mut ctx.bbox),
+            Self::Figure(ctx) => Some(&mut ctx.bbox),
+            Self::Formula(ctx) => Some(&mut ctx.bbox),
+            _ => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_breakable(&self, is_pdf_ua: bool) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            StackEntryKind::Standard(tag) => match tag {
+                TagKind::Part(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
+                TagKind::Article(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
+                TagKind::Section(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
+                TagKind::Div(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
+                TagKind::BlockQuote(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
+                TagKind::Caption(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
+                TagKind::TOC(_) => false,
+                TagKind::TOCI(_) => false,
+                TagKind::Index(_) => false,
+                TagKind::P(_) => true,
+                TagKind::Hn(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
+                TagKind::L(_) => false,
+                TagKind::LI(_) => false,
+                TagKind::Lbl(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
+                TagKind::LBody(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
+                TagKind::Table(_) => false,
+                TagKind::TR(_) => false,
+                // TODO: disallow table/grid cells outside of tables/grids
+                TagKind::TH(_) => false,
+                TagKind::TD(_) => false,
+                TagKind::THead(_) => false,
+                TagKind::TBody(_) => false,
+                TagKind::TFoot(_) => false,
+                TagKind::Span(_) => true,
+                TagKind::InlineQuote(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
+                TagKind::Note(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
+                TagKind::Reference(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
+                TagKind::BibEntry(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
+                TagKind::Code(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
+                TagKind::Link(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
+                TagKind::Annot(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
+                TagKind::Figure(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
+                TagKind::Formula(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
+                TagKind::NonStruct(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
+                TagKind::Datetime(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
+                TagKind::Terms(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
+                TagKind::Title(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
+            },
+            StackEntryKind::Outline(_) => false,
+            StackEntryKind::OutlineEntry(_) => false,
+            StackEntryKind::Table(_) => false,
+            StackEntryKind::TableCell(_) => false,
+            StackEntryKind::List(_) => false,
+            StackEntryKind::ListItemLabel => false,
+            StackEntryKind::ListItemBody => false,
+            StackEntryKind::BibEntry => false,
+            StackEntryKind::Figure(_) => false,
+            StackEntryKind::Formula(_) => false,
+            StackEntryKind::Link(..) => !is_pdf_ua,
+            StackEntryKind::FootnoteRef(_) => false,
+            StackEntryKind::FootnoteEntry(_) => false,
+            StackEntryKind::Code(_) => false,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub struct FootnoteCtx {
+    /// Whether this footenote has been referenced inside the document. The
+    /// entry will be inserted inside the reading order after the first
+    /// reference. All other references will still have links to the footnote.
+    pub is_referenced: bool,
+    /// The nodes that make up the footnote entry.
+    pub entry: Option<TagNode>,
+}
+
+impl FootnoteCtx {
+    pub const fn new() -> Self {
+        Self { is_referenced: false, entry: None }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Figure/Formula context
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub struct FigureCtx {
+    pub alt: Option<String>,
+    pub bbox: BBoxCtx,
+}
+
+impl FigureCtx {
+    pub fn new(alt: Option<String>) -> Self {
+        Self { alt, bbox: BBoxCtx::new() }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub struct BBoxCtx {
+    pub rect: Option<(usize, Rect)>,
+    pub multi_page: bool,
+}
+
+impl BBoxCtx {
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self { rect: None, multi_page: false }
+    }
+
+    pub fn reset(&mut self) {
+        *self = Self::new();
+    }
+
+    /// Expand the bounding box with a `rect` relative to the current frame
+    /// context transform.
+    pub fn expand_frame(&mut self, fc: &FrameContext, rect: Rect) {
+        let Some(page_idx) = fc.page_idx else { return };
+        if self.multi_page {
+            return;
+        }
+        let (idx, bbox) = self.rect.get_or_insert((
+            page_idx,
+            Rect::new(Point::splat(Abs::inf()), Point::splat(-Abs::inf())),
+        ));
+        if *idx != page_idx {
+            self.multi_page = true;
+            self.rect = None;
+            return;
+        }
+
+        let size = rect.size();
+        for point in [
+            rect.min,
+            rect.min + Point::with_x(size.x),
+            rect.min + Point::with_y(size.y),
+            rect.max,
+        ] {
+            let p = point.transform(fc.state().transform());
+            bbox.min = bbox.min.min(p);
+            bbox.max = bbox.max.max(p);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Expand the bounding box with a rectangle that's already transformed into
+    /// page coordinates.
+    pub fn expand_page(&mut self, page_idx: usize, rect: Rect) {
+        if self.multi_page {
+            return;
+        }
+        let (idx, bbox) = self.rect.get_or_insert((
+            page_idx,
+            Rect::new(Point::splat(Abs::inf()), Point::splat(-Abs::inf())),
+        ));
+        if *idx != page_idx {
+            self.multi_page = true;
+            self.rect = None;
+            return;
+        }
+
+        bbox.min = bbox.min.min(rect.min);
+        bbox.max = bbox.max.max(rect.max);
+    }
+
+    pub fn get(&self) -> Option<BBox> {
+        let (page_idx, rect) = self.rect?;
+        let rect = kg::Rect::from_ltrb(
+            rect.min.x.to_f32(),
+            rect.min.y.to_f32(),
+            rect.max.x.to_f32(),
+            rect.max.y.to_f32(),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        Some(BBox::new(page_idx, rect))
+    }
+}
diff --git a/crates/typst-pdf/src/tags/mod.rs b/crates/typst-pdf/src/tags/mod.rs
index 30d87e27b..5c7720e44 100644
--- a/crates/typst-pdf/src/tags/mod.rs
+++ b/crates/typst-pdf/src/tags/mod.rs
@@ -1,21 +1,16 @@
-use std::cell::OnceCell;
-use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::num::NonZeroU32;
-use std::slice::SliceIndex;
 
 use ecow::EcoString;
 use krilla::configure::Validator;
-use krilla::geom as kg;
 use krilla::page::Page;
 use krilla::surface::Surface;
 use krilla::tagging::{
-    ArtifactType, BBox, ContentTag, Identifier, ListNumbering, Node, SpanTag, Tag,
-    TagKind, TagTree,
+    ArtifactType, ContentTag, Identifier, ListNumbering, Node, SpanTag, Tag, TagKind,
 };
 use typst_library::diag::{SourceResult, bail};
-use typst_library::foundations::{Content, LinkMarker, Packed};
+use typst_library::foundations::{Content, LinkMarker};
 use typst_library::introspection::Location;
-use typst_library::layout::{Abs, Point, Rect, RepeatElem};
+use typst_library::layout::{Rect, RepeatElem};
 use typst_library::math::EquationElem;
 use typst_library::model::{
     Destination, EnumElem, FigureCaption, FigureElem, FootnoteEntry, HeadingElem,
@@ -33,13 +28,63 @@ use crate::tags::list::ListCtx;
 use crate::tags::outline::OutlineCtx;
 use crate::tags::table::TableCtx;
 use crate::tags::util::{PropertyOptRef, PropertyValCopied};
-use crate::util::AbsExt;
 
+pub use context::*;
+
+mod context;
 mod list;
 mod outline;
 mod table;
 mod util;
 
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub enum TagNode {
+    Group(TagGroup),
+    Leaf(Identifier),
+    /// Allows inserting a placeholder into the tag tree.
+    /// Currently used for [`krilla::page::Page::add_tagged_annotation`].
+    Placeholder(Placeholder),
+    FootnoteEntry(Location),
+}
+
+impl TagNode {
+    pub fn group(tag: impl Into<TagKind>, contents: GroupContents) -> Self {
+        let lang = contents.lang.map(|l| l.as_str().to_string());
+        let tag = tag
+            .into()
+            .with_lang(lang)
+            .with_location(Some(contents.span.into_raw()));
+        TagNode::Group(TagGroup { tag, nodes: contents.nodes })
+    }
+
+    /// A tag group not directly related to a typst element, generated to
+    /// accomodate the tag structure.
+    pub fn virtual_group(tag: impl Into<TagKind>, nodes: Vec<TagNode>) -> Self {
+        let tag = tag.into();
+        TagNode::Group(TagGroup { tag, nodes })
+    }
+
+    pub fn empty_group(tag: impl Into<TagKind>) -> Self {
+        Self::virtual_group(tag, Vec::new())
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub struct TagGroup {
+    tag: TagKind,
+    nodes: Vec<TagNode>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub struct GroupContents {
+    span: Span,
+    lang: Option<Lang>,
+    nodes: Vec<TagNode>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]
+pub struct Placeholder(usize);
+
 pub fn handle_start(
     gc: &mut GlobalContext,
     surface: &mut Surface,
@@ -511,567 +556,6 @@ pub fn update_bbox(
     }
 }
 
-pub struct Tags {
-    /// The language of the first text item that has been encountered.
-    pub doc_lang: Option<Lang>,
-    /// The intermediary stack of nested tag groups.
-    pub stack: TagStack,
-    /// A list of placeholders corresponding to a [`TagNode::Placeholder`].
-    pub placeholders: Placeholders,
-    /// Footnotes are inserted directly after the footenote reference in the
-    /// reading order. Because of some layouting bugs, the entry might appear
-    /// before the reference in the text, so we only resolve them once tags
-    /// for the whole document are generated.
-    pub footnotes: HashMap<Location, FootnoteCtx>,
-    pub in_artifact: Option<(Location, ArtifactKind)>,
-    /// Used to group multiple link annotations using quad points.
-    link_id: LinkId,
-    /// Used to generate IDs referenced in table `Headers` attributes.
-    /// The IDs must be document wide unique.
-    table_id: TableId,
-
-    /// The output.
-    pub tree: Vec<TagNode>,
-}
-
-impl Tags {
-    pub fn new() -> Self {
-        Self {
-            doc_lang: None,
-            stack: TagStack::new(),
-            placeholders: Placeholders(Vec::new()),
-            footnotes: HashMap::new(),
-            in_artifact: None,
-
-            link_id: LinkId(0),
-            table_id: TableId(0),
-
-            tree: Vec::new(),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn push(&mut self, node: TagNode) {
-        if let Some(entry) = self.stack.last_mut() {
-            entry.nodes.push(node);
-        } else {
-            self.tree.push(node);
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn extend(&mut self, nodes: impl IntoIterator<Item = TagNode>) {
-        if let Some(entry) = self.stack.last_mut() {
-            entry.nodes.extend(nodes);
-        } else {
-            self.tree.extend(nodes);
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn build_tree(&mut self) -> TagTree {
-        let children = std::mem::take(&mut self.tree)
-            .into_iter()
-            .map(|node| self.resolve_node(node))
-            .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-        TagTree::from(children)
-    }
-
-    /// Try to set the language of a parent tag, or the entire document.
-    /// If the language couldn't be set and is different from the existing one,
-    /// this will return `Some`, and the language should be specified on the
-    /// marked content directly.
-    pub fn try_set_lang(&mut self, lang: Lang) -> Option<Lang> {
-        // Discard languages within artifacts.
-        if self.in_artifact.is_some() {
-            return None;
-        }
-        if self.doc_lang.is_none_or(|l| l == lang) {
-            self.doc_lang = Some(lang);
-            return None;
-        }
-        if let Some(last) = self.stack.last_mut()
-            && last.lang.is_none_or(|l| l == lang)
-        {
-            last.lang = Some(lang);
-            return None;
-        }
-        Some(lang)
-    }
-
-    /// Resolves [`Placeholder`] nodes.
-    fn resolve_node(&mut self, node: TagNode) -> Node {
-        match node {
-            TagNode::Group(TagGroup { tag, nodes }) => {
-                let children = nodes
-                    .into_iter()
-                    .map(|node| self.resolve_node(node))
-                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
-                Node::Group(krilla::tagging::TagGroup::with_children(tag, children))
-            }
-            TagNode::Leaf(identifier) => Node::Leaf(identifier),
-            TagNode::Placeholder(placeholder) => self.placeholders.take(placeholder),
-            TagNode::FootnoteEntry(loc) => {
-                let node = (self.footnotes.remove(&loc))
-                    .and_then(|ctx| ctx.entry)
-                    .expect("footnote");
-                self.resolve_node(node)
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn context_supports(&self, _tag: &StackEntryKind) -> bool {
-        // TODO: generate using: https://pdfa.org/resource/iso-ts-32005-hierarchical-inclusion-rules/
-        true
-    }
-
-    pub fn next_link_id(&mut self) -> LinkId {
-        self.link_id.0 += 1;
-        self.link_id
-    }
-
-    fn next_table_id(&mut self) -> TableId {
-        self.table_id.0 += 1;
-        self.table_id
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct TagStack {
-    items: Vec<StackEntry>,
-    /// The index of the topmost stack entry that has a bbox.
-    bbox_idx: Option<usize>,
-}
-
-impl<I: SliceIndex<[StackEntry]>> std::ops::Index<I> for TagStack {
-    type Output = I::Output;
-
-    #[inline]
-    fn index(&self, index: I) -> &Self::Output {
-        std::ops::Index::index(&self.items, index)
-    }
-}
-
-impl<I: SliceIndex<[StackEntry]>> std::ops::IndexMut<I> for TagStack {
-    #[inline]
-    fn index_mut(&mut self, index: I) -> &mut Self::Output {
-        std::ops::IndexMut::index_mut(&mut self.items, index)
-    }
-}
-
-impl TagStack {
-    pub fn new() -> Self {
-        Self { items: Vec::new(), bbox_idx: None }
-    }
-
-    pub fn len(&self) -> usize {
-        self.items.len()
-    }
-
-    pub fn last(&self) -> Option<&StackEntry> {
-        self.items.last()
-    }
-
-    pub fn last_mut(&mut self) -> Option<&mut StackEntry> {
-        self.items.last_mut()
-    }
-
-    pub fn iter(&self) -> std::slice::Iter<StackEntry> {
-        self.items.iter()
-    }
-
-    pub fn push(&mut self, entry: StackEntry) {
-        if entry.kind.bbox().is_some() {
-            self.bbox_idx = Some(self.len());
-        }
-        self.items.push(entry);
-    }
-
-    pub fn extend(&mut self, iter: impl IntoIterator<Item = StackEntry>) {
-        let start = self.len();
-        self.items.extend(iter);
-        let last_bbox_offset = self.items[start..]
-            .iter()
-            .rposition(|entry| entry.kind.bbox().is_some());
-        if let Some(offset) = last_bbox_offset {
-            self.bbox_idx = Some(start + offset);
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Remove the last stack entry if the predicate returns true.
-    /// This takes care of updating the parent bboxes.
-    pub fn pop_if(
-        &mut self,
-        mut predicate: impl FnMut(&mut StackEntry) -> bool,
-    ) -> Option<StackEntry> {
-        let last = self.items.last_mut()?;
-        if predicate(last) { self.pop() } else { None }
-    }
-
-    /// Remove the last stack entry.
-    /// This takes care of updating the parent bboxes.
-    pub fn pop(&mut self) -> Option<StackEntry> {
-        let removed = self.items.pop()?;
-
-        let Some(inner_bbox) = removed.kind.bbox() else { return Some(removed) };
-
-        self.bbox_idx = self.items.iter_mut().enumerate().rev().find_map(|(i, entry)| {
-            let outer_bbox = entry.kind.bbox_mut()?;
-            if let Some((page_idx, rect)) = inner_bbox.rect {
-                outer_bbox.expand_page(page_idx, rect);
-            }
-            Some(i)
-        });
-
-        Some(removed)
-    }
-
-    pub fn parent(&mut self) -> Option<&mut StackEntryKind> {
-        self.items.last_mut().map(|e| &mut e.kind)
-    }
-
-    pub fn parent_table(&mut self) -> Option<&mut TableCtx> {
-        self.parent()?.as_table_mut()
-    }
-
-    pub fn parent_list(&mut self) -> Option<&mut ListCtx> {
-        self.parent()?.as_list_mut()
-    }
-
-    pub fn parent_figure(&mut self) -> Option<&mut FigureCtx> {
-        self.parent()?.as_figure_mut()
-    }
-
-    pub fn parent_outline(&mut self) -> Option<(&mut OutlineCtx, &mut Vec<TagNode>)> {
-        self.items.last_mut().and_then(|e| {
-            let ctx = e.kind.as_outline_mut()?;
-            Some((ctx, &mut e.nodes))
-        })
-    }
-
-    pub fn find_parent_link(
-        &mut self,
-    ) -> Option<(LinkId, &Packed<LinkMarker>, &mut Vec<TagNode>)> {
-        self.items.iter_mut().rev().find_map(|e| {
-            let (link_id, link) = e.kind.as_link()?;
-            Some((link_id, link, &mut e.nodes))
-        })
-    }
-
-    /// Finds the first parent that has a bounding box.
-    pub fn find_parent_bbox(&mut self) -> Option<&mut BBoxCtx> {
-        self.items[self.bbox_idx?].kind.bbox_mut()
-    }
-}
-
-pub struct Placeholders(Vec<OnceCell<Node>>);
-
-impl Placeholders {
-    pub fn reserve(&mut self) -> Placeholder {
-        let idx = self.0.len();
-        self.0.push(OnceCell::new());
-        Placeholder(idx)
-    }
-
-    pub fn init(&mut self, placeholder: Placeholder, node: Node) {
-        self.0[placeholder.0]
-            .set(node)
-            .map_err(|_| ())
-            .expect("placeholder to be uninitialized");
-    }
-
-    pub fn take(&mut self, placeholder: Placeholder) -> Node {
-        self.0[placeholder.0].take().expect("initialized placeholder node")
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
-pub struct TableId(u32);
-
-#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
-pub struct LinkId(u32);
-
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct StackEntry {
-    pub loc: Location,
-    pub span: Span,
-    pub lang: Option<Lang>,
-    pub kind: StackEntryKind,
-    pub nodes: Vec<TagNode>,
-}
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-pub enum StackEntryKind {
-    Standard(TagKind),
-    Outline(OutlineCtx),
-    OutlineEntry(Packed<OutlineEntry>),
-    Table(TableCtx),
-    TableCell(Packed<TableCell>),
-    List(ListCtx),
-    ListItemLabel,
-    ListItemBody,
-    BibEntry,
-    Figure(FigureCtx),
-    Formula(FigureCtx),
-    Link(LinkId, Packed<LinkMarker>),
-    /// The footnote reference in the text, contains the declaration location.
-    FootnoteRef(Location),
-    /// The footnote entry at the end of the page. Contains the [`Location`] of
-    /// the [`FootnoteElem`](typst_library::model::FootnoteElem).
-    FootnoteEntry(Location),
-    Code(Option<String>),
-}
-
-impl StackEntryKind {
-    pub fn as_outline_mut(&mut self) -> Option<&mut OutlineCtx> {
-        if let Self::Outline(v) = self { Some(v) } else { None }
-    }
-
-    pub fn as_table_mut(&mut self) -> Option<&mut TableCtx> {
-        if let Self::Table(v) = self { Some(v) } else { None }
-    }
-
-    pub fn as_list_mut(&mut self) -> Option<&mut ListCtx> {
-        if let Self::List(v) = self { Some(v) } else { None }
-    }
-
-    pub fn as_figure_mut(&mut self) -> Option<&mut FigureCtx> {
-        if let Self::Figure(v) = self { Some(v) } else { None }
-    }
-
-    pub fn as_link(&self) -> Option<(LinkId, &Packed<LinkMarker>)> {
-        if let Self::Link(id, link) = self { Some((*id, link)) } else { None }
-    }
-
-    pub fn bbox(&self) -> Option<&BBoxCtx> {
-        match self {
-            Self::Table(ctx) => Some(&ctx.bbox),
-            Self::Figure(ctx) => Some(&ctx.bbox),
-            Self::Formula(ctx) => Some(&ctx.bbox),
-            _ => None,
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn bbox_mut(&mut self) -> Option<&mut BBoxCtx> {
-        match self {
-            Self::Table(ctx) => Some(&mut ctx.bbox),
-            Self::Figure(ctx) => Some(&mut ctx.bbox),
-            Self::Formula(ctx) => Some(&mut ctx.bbox),
-            _ => None,
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn is_breakable(&self, is_pdf_ua: bool) -> bool {
-        match self {
-            StackEntryKind::Standard(tag) => match tag {
-                TagKind::Part(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
-                TagKind::Article(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
-                TagKind::Section(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
-                TagKind::Div(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
-                TagKind::BlockQuote(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
-                TagKind::Caption(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
-                TagKind::TOC(_) => false,
-                TagKind::TOCI(_) => false,
-                TagKind::Index(_) => false,
-                TagKind::P(_) => true,
-                TagKind::Hn(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
-                TagKind::L(_) => false,
-                TagKind::LI(_) => false,
-                TagKind::Lbl(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
-                TagKind::LBody(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
-                TagKind::Table(_) => false,
-                TagKind::TR(_) => false,
-                // TODO: disallow table/grid cells outside of tables/grids
-                TagKind::TH(_) => false,
-                TagKind::TD(_) => false,
-                TagKind::THead(_) => false,
-                TagKind::TBody(_) => false,
-                TagKind::TFoot(_) => false,
-                TagKind::Span(_) => true,
-                TagKind::InlineQuote(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
-                TagKind::Note(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
-                TagKind::Reference(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
-                TagKind::BibEntry(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
-                TagKind::Code(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
-                TagKind::Link(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
-                TagKind::Annot(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
-                TagKind::Figure(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
-                TagKind::Formula(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
-                TagKind::NonStruct(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
-                TagKind::Datetime(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
-                TagKind::Terms(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
-                TagKind::Title(_) => !is_pdf_ua,
-            },
-            StackEntryKind::Outline(_) => false,
-            StackEntryKind::OutlineEntry(_) => false,
-            StackEntryKind::Table(_) => false,
-            StackEntryKind::TableCell(_) => false,
-            StackEntryKind::List(_) => false,
-            StackEntryKind::ListItemLabel => false,
-            StackEntryKind::ListItemBody => false,
-            StackEntryKind::BibEntry => false,
-            StackEntryKind::Figure(_) => false,
-            StackEntryKind::Formula(_) => false,
-            StackEntryKind::Link(..) => !is_pdf_ua,
-            StackEntryKind::FootnoteRef(_) => false,
-            StackEntryKind::FootnoteEntry(_) => false,
-            StackEntryKind::Code(_) => false,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
-pub struct FootnoteCtx {
-    /// Whether this footenote has been referenced inside the document. The
-    /// entry will be inserted inside the reading order after the first
-    /// reference. All other references will still have links to the footnote.
-    is_referenced: bool,
-    /// The nodes that make up the footnote entry.
-    entry: Option<TagNode>,
-}
-
-impl FootnoteCtx {
-    pub const fn new() -> Self {
-        Self { is_referenced: false, entry: None }
-    }
-}
-
-/// Figure/Formula context
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
-pub struct FigureCtx {
-    alt: Option<String>,
-    bbox: BBoxCtx,
-}
-
-impl FigureCtx {
-    fn new(alt: Option<String>) -> Self {
-        Self { alt, bbox: BBoxCtx::new() }
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
-pub struct BBoxCtx {
-    rect: Option<(usize, Rect)>,
-    multi_page: bool,
-}
-
-impl BBoxCtx {
-    pub fn new() -> Self {
-        Self { rect: None, multi_page: false }
-    }
-
-    pub fn reset(&mut self) {
-        *self = Self::new();
-    }
-
-    /// Expand the bounding box with a `rect` relative to the current frame
-    /// context transform.
-    pub fn expand_frame(&mut self, fc: &FrameContext, rect: Rect) {
-        let Some(page_idx) = fc.page_idx else { return };
-        if self.multi_page {
-            return;
-        }
-        let (idx, bbox) = self.rect.get_or_insert((
-            page_idx,
-            Rect::new(Point::splat(Abs::inf()), Point::splat(-Abs::inf())),
-        ));
-        if *idx != page_idx {
-            self.multi_page = true;
-            self.rect = None;
-            return;
-        }
-
-        let size = rect.size();
-        for point in [
-            rect.min,
-            rect.min + Point::with_x(size.x),
-            rect.min + Point::with_y(size.y),
-            rect.max,
-        ] {
-            let p = point.transform(fc.state().transform());
-            bbox.min = bbox.min.min(p);
-            bbox.max = bbox.max.max(p);
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Expand the bounding box with a rectangle that's already transformed into
-    /// page coordinates.
-    pub fn expand_page(&mut self, page_idx: usize, rect: Rect) {
-        if self.multi_page {
-            return;
-        }
-        let (idx, bbox) = self.rect.get_or_insert((
-            page_idx,
-            Rect::new(Point::splat(Abs::inf()), Point::splat(-Abs::inf())),
-        ));
-        if *idx != page_idx {
-            self.multi_page = true;
-            self.rect = None;
-            return;
-        }
-
-        bbox.min = bbox.min.min(rect.min);
-        bbox.max = bbox.max.max(rect.max);
-    }
-
-    pub fn get(&self) -> Option<BBox> {
-        let (page_idx, rect) = self.rect?;
-        let rect = kg::Rect::from_ltrb(
-            rect.min.x.to_f32(),
-            rect.min.y.to_f32(),
-            rect.max.x.to_f32(),
-            rect.max.y.to_f32(),
-        )
-        .unwrap();
-        Some(BBox::new(page_idx, rect))
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
-pub enum TagNode {
-    Group(TagGroup),
-    Leaf(Identifier),
-    /// Allows inserting a placeholder into the tag tree.
-    /// Currently used for [`krilla::page::Page::add_tagged_annotation`].
-    Placeholder(Placeholder),
-    FootnoteEntry(Location),
-}
-
-impl TagNode {
-    pub fn group(tag: impl Into<TagKind>, contents: GroupContents) -> Self {
-        let lang = contents.lang.map(|l| l.as_str().to_string());
-        let tag = tag
-            .into()
-            .with_lang(lang)
-            .with_location(Some(contents.span.into_raw()));
-        TagNode::Group(TagGroup { tag, nodes: contents.nodes })
-    }
-
-    /// A tag group not directly related to a typst element, generated to
-    /// accomodate the tag structure.
-    pub fn virtual_group(tag: impl Into<TagKind>, nodes: Vec<TagNode>) -> Self {
-        let tag = tag.into();
-        TagNode::Group(TagGroup { tag, nodes })
-    }
-
-    pub fn empty_group(tag: impl Into<TagKind>) -> Self {
-        Self::virtual_group(tag, Vec::new())
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
-pub struct TagGroup {
-    tag: TagKind,
-    nodes: Vec<TagNode>,
-}
-
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
-pub struct GroupContents {
-    span: Span,
-    lang: Option<Lang>,
-    nodes: Vec<TagNode>,
-}
-
-#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]
-pub struct Placeholder(usize);
-
 /// Automatically calls [`Surface::end_tagged`] when dropped.
 pub struct TagHandle<'a, 'b> {
     surface: &'b mut Surface<'a>,
diff --git a/crates/typst-pdf/src/tags/table.rs b/crates/typst-pdf/src/tags/table.rs
index c1d06810e..92abface1 100644
--- a/crates/typst-pdf/src/tags/table.rs
+++ b/crates/typst-pdf/src/tags/table.rs
@@ -311,7 +311,7 @@ fn should_group_rows(a: TableCellKind, b: TableCellKind) -> bool {
 
 fn table_cell_id(table_id: TableId, x: u32, y: u32) -> TagId {
     let mut buf = SmallVec::<[u8; 32]>::new();
-    _ = write!(&mut buf, "{}x{x}y{y}", table_id.0);
+    _ = write!(&mut buf, "{}x{x}y{y}", table_id.get());
     TagId::from(buf)
 }